Lipstick Under My Burkha-
Movie Review
Lipstick Under My Burkha (2016) a bollywood film by Alankrita Shrivastava shows us the secret suffocating lives of four women and the small acts they take of courage and rebellion to be true to themselves. The Burkha here isn’t simply the clothing but also serves as the boundaries these women face in society and in their families. Through the backdrop of the erotic Rosy, star of the Lipstick Dreams book being read by one of the characters, Usha.
We hear the dialogue and watch the lives of our four main women, Usha, Rehana, Shireen and Leela play out. The erotic novel also serves as a comparison for the way these four live their lives, from the title ‘Lipstick Dreams’ these women are also taking part in living their dreams that may differ from each other but all fall under a sexual freedom they desire. Their dreams go hand in hand with their daily lives wherein they conform to what is expected of them while simultaneously taking steps to achieve the happiness and pleasure that they desire.
Ratna Shah Pathak stars in this movie as Usha, Usha-ji or Bhua Ji as she’s fondly called in the town in Bhopal where our story takes place. It is through her narration of Lipstick Dreams that we are introduced to Rosy. Usha is a widow of 55 who in the privacy of her room reads her erotic novels longing to walk in Rosy’s shoes. Ushas life consists mainly as the figurehead aunt of her community. The turning point in Ushas life comes in the form of Jaspal, a swimming instructor she meets when trying to save one of the children she’s watching over.
Through the courage she gets from Rosy she starts down a road of taking swimming classes to be with him and using the cover of Rosy to seduce him and experience her own adventure into a part of herself she had forgotten. This is telling in the scene where Jaspal asks her what her name is and she responds with BhuaJi and he laughs. Its not that she doesn’t remember her name but it’s a part of her life that she had shut of and only associated herself into what her community needed of her and not as a widow with her own identity and needs. Her world comes crashing down when all the people who respect her discover that she was seducing a younger man and they break into her room and raid through her stuff and find her erotica. She falls in their eyes as they snub her.
A line that pushes their point across is ‘a woman at her age’ they are disappointed that a women of 55 would have sexual desires and fantasies. This comes from the understanding society has that women should devote themselves to celibacy and prayer meetings especially in an ageist society expecting these demands of a woman of her age.This begs the question why we must desexualize a woman after a certain point in her life. The final nail in her coffin is Jaspal calling her out by demeaning her and saying she could never be ‘Rosy’ has she not looked in the mirror, as he tears her book apart and she is left to gather her belongings. Usha is stripped of her dignity and falls in the eyes of everyone who once she looked out for simply indulging in moments of sexual pleasure and fantasies in the privacy of her own home. The character is hesitant yet filled with need and takes various steps outside her comfort zone. A zone that many woman know too well to be constructed for them by the surrounding patriarchal expectations.
Rehana, played by Plabita Borthakur, our movie opens with us being introduced to Rehana shoplifting (one of many scenes). Rehana also sews burkhas in her family’s store. Her theft connects to her stealing makeup and clothing for her to wear in college where her burkha which she is forced to wear, comes off. Rehana lives in a restrictive household with orthodox parents. Rehana is a relatable character for most who portray a respectable daughter for their parents in various ways and live out parts of their lives in secret. In Rehanas case, she hides posters of her favourite singer Miley Cyrus behind boards in her room and keeps her head down and does her work in the store. While at college she is fashionably clad and fights for the right to wear jeans while chasing her dream to sing alongside a drummer for a boyfriend. Rehanas eventual arrest causes her father to tell her he is ashamed to call her his daughter, with his next step being to find her a groom and stopping her education. Like any other girl she is simply yearning to have freedom to express herself whether that be in her fashion choices or her identity in the music world with her Led Zeppelin tunes playing in her head. This shows the life a girl grows up with under the constraints of parental expectations to uphold while also juggling discovering their identity. While we all may not have to hide posters in our room, we do mold ourselves to fulfill the needs of our parents which lay heavily on our shoulders. Which ultimately come from a place of what would people say. As parents the picture perfect child is a reflection of them whereas as
Rehanas mother points out , a shameless child in a cell, or in certain clothing or fighting to have a certain identity is a tarnish on the family name.
Leela, portrayed by Aahana Kumra, is engaged to someone she doesn’t know while planning to travel the world with a secret boyfriend who runs a photography studio. We watch as she and her boyfriend Arshad meet with wedding business and offer their services of photography and her beautician skills.We watch Leela struggle to decide between the lustful relationship with her boyfriend who doesn’t try to stop her wedding like she hoped and the higher class fiancé who offers to buy her mother a home and provide Leelas life with stability. However Leela finds the stability suffocating which is seen in a scene with her looking at her new home and her fiancé claiming she will never have to even leave the house, and runs back to the arms of her boyfriend who has had enough of her. She decides to settle for her stable married life until her husband invades her privacy and finds a video in her phone of her and Arshad having sex on her engagement night. Leelas options are both flawed with her boyfriend being unreliable and her husband being too drab for her sense of adventure.
Finally, the hardest storyline to watch was that of Shireen. Played by Konkona Sen Sharma, Shireen is a mother to three boys and wife to Rahim. We’re introduced to Shireens plight of secret emergency contraceptives, multiple abortions and uterus infections whenever her husband comes to town for two weeks. We watch in dismay as she tries to introduce a condom to which he questions her purchasing it over her duties of purchasing groceries and simply tosses it to the side. Rahim is a sexually aggressive husband who radiates cold indifference to her unless he is using her for his pleasure. However Shireen in secret also worked as a salesperson and was receiving praise and promotions. At various points she tries to converse with her husband about her job, beeming with pride about the cake she made from the microwave she was gifted. Only she was met with being ignored and talked over and ultimately being used. She finds out her husband is also cheating on her and when she confronts the issue she is caught at her job. Shireen has only yearned for affection from her husband and watching him giving that to someone else pushes her to her breaking point. Rahim finding out about her job leads to him raping her and instructing her “You are the woman. Don’t try to w ear the pants”. He also blames her for confronting the girl he was talking and blames her for embarrassing him. He tells her to turn down the job and stay at home. This shows his stubbornness and set mindset even though he lacked a job and she could save their family. He still won’t let a woman earn. Shireens body is not seen as her own for her to fulfill her desires but simply a possession of Rahims to use. This speaks volumes about the marital bliss that has to be portrayed in society and the amount of cases of marital rape that goes unheard of and often isn’t seen as rape as it is in a marital context. Women are more than baby making machines and have their own dreams which shouldn’t be crushed under the idea that in a marriage only men should work while women should be stuck at home.
However the movie even portrays issues such as the scenes with Shireen and Rahim, could have discussed safe sex and the need to educate men. It shouldn’t fall all on the women to protect themselves. The nod toward the danger of constant emergency contraceptives and various abortions should have been further discussed. As a movie that brings about a conversation about women sexuality, the dangers of not using contraceptives to avoid not only abortions but infections should have been discussed in deeper manner. However the movie misses this opportunity by only showing how men view women as objects they can use. Rahims indifference to his wife and her safety is as heartbreaking as the worry for her safety echoes. In the same situation we watch as Shireen is judged by the surrounding women, with one going as far as to call her a baby making machine. Her one solace, her doctor also speaks down to her regarding the need for condoms. We watch on as Shireen has to hide her embarrassment and make up a story. Why are these women judging her as if she has any control or had any say in her situation. In a movie of supportive women searching for their truth we should have had Shireens plight met with a more understanding angle.
The movie also sets up Rehana and Shireens story lines with them facing inflexible society and gives us the feeling of them being doomed from the start. Compared to Usha and Leela who move a bit more flexibly as characters. Rehana and her orthodox parents and Shireen with her abusive husband set the stage of failure for their hope to really move too far, as they ultimately fall prey to familial constraints and fear. They unlike the other two work within restrictions wherein they are not their own people but owned by others. Rehana is only a fresher under her parents control and as they point out they can stop her education. While Shireen is trapped in the fearful and dangerous relationship of an abusive and aggressive husband.
The movie also glosses over an important character in Leelas mother. It later reveals that she is a nude model for art students. Leelas mother has a story line that could have been used to provide a mother daughter discussion from a different angle and could have held a lesson for Leela to learn from. It could have celebrated Leelas mothers path and given her space to be a strong celebrated character. However this was neglected in the movie and the small glimpse into her life only served as a purpose of furthering Leelas storyline in considering her fiancé as vital as he is going to provide a safe home for her mother and a stable life for them. Instead of celebrating the sexual freedom and life of nude artists it was used as an inescapable struggle and not a conversation between mother and daughter. If the movie did want to portray the mother as embarrassed and ashamed of her life as a nude model it could have chosen to have a dialogue with Leela empowering her mother and explaining to her how there is nothing to be ashamed of.
Women supporting women needs to start becoming a vital plot line, whether it could’ve been Leela and her mother or whether it was the badly handled judgement Shireen faced in a situation that was not in her control. It does reflect the societal struggles but the movie should have promoted a sense of solidarity amongst women instead of the poorly handled paths they took.
The movie casting the main women in different age groups made it easy for itself to discuss the struggles that are faced in different parts of our journeys in life. For Rehana its the struggle of her parents not understanding her deviation from their norm. For Shireen its her husband not understanding that women can also work and aren’t possession for his sexual gratification. For Usha its how people interpret what a woman at a certain age should appear and the level of dignity they must display. For Leela on the cusp of marriage its whether passion or stability factor into her life and how the men in her life dictate her best possible future.
Sexual Objectification is when a woman’s body and sexual functions are isolated from her being as a whole and are treated as objects to be looked at or touched. (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997 as cited in Rooney, 2016) Once objectified the worth of the woman’s body is equated to its physical appearance and is treated as it exists solely for others to use (Fairchild & Rudman, 2008; Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Szymanski, Moffit, & Carr, 2011, as cited in Rooney, 2016)
Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) looked at how sexual objectification, such as seen in the case of Shireen in the movie Lipstick Under My Burkha, could have psychological risks in women when in a culture that is constantly looking at and evaluating their bodies.
This theory talks about how women constantly exposed to sexually objectifying behavior, internalize the social perspective of a woman’s body as their primary view. (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Szymanski & Henning, 2007 as cited in Rooney, 2016) This internalization is seen as self objectification and is seen in thoughts and behaviors as self conscious body monitoring and comparing ones body to what the standard or ideal is. In Rehanas universe of a young girl newly in college and idolizing Miley Cyrus, her ideal body presentation is that of a fashionable girl who expresses herself through style. Rehanna’s orthodox home life thus presents a problem wherein she is exposed to popular girls dressed in jeans and makeup and yearns to express herself outside the constraints of her Burkha. She stares at magazine pictures of her idol Miley Cyrus and steals clothes, shoes and makeup to fit into her world of college students. For her it is freedom of expression but also influenced by what she is exposed to as norm to feel beautiful.
Self Objectification has been seen through research to have a connection with mental health outcomes of shame, anxiety and depression and disordered eating. Thus self objectification leads to mental health problems in women (Augustus-Horvath & Tylka, 2009; Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; Harned, 2000; Szymanski & Henning, 2007 as cited in Rooney, 2016)
Marital Rape in India, is not a criminal offence. Home Affair minister, Haribhai Chaudhary has stated that marital rape cant be a criminal offence in India due to the high illiteracy rate, extreme religious beliefs and the sanctity of marriage. An online senior psychologist at ePsyClinic states that once a man believes that any sort of sex he indulges with his wife is normal then even if he forces his wife to have sex it can not be called rape.(as cited in Times Of India by Sharma,2017) Shireen is clearly raped as punishment for stepping out of line in her husband’s mind by secretly working. The idea that women have their own desire and exist not only as an object but as a whole person would change the course of marital rape if men like Rahim could see their wives not solely existing to satisfy their sexual needs but as people with aspirations and accomplishments and in need of love and affection. The ability to view women as a whole would place a larger value on their participation in a sexual scenario as voluntary rather than as something men take for granted.
Film as a medium of representation usually shows women as emotionally and physically weak characters who are dependent on men. Lipstick Under My Burkha constructs real women characters with whom we can relate to. They are strong and empowered in their own ways and are navigating their expectations in a society telling them who they can and can’t be. They are not picture perfect characters with their lying and stealing but they are whole and real. Thus being a change from the usual misrepresentation of women and their stories.
These types of movies help women audiences become stronger and support them in voicing out their desires and needs. It helps show realistic characters and start a conversation. It may not be making huge strides but its an important small steps in altering the minds of the people and the approach taken when discussing female sexuality. It may have people pausing and second guessing how women are in control of their needs and desires instead of just assuming any alternative. The film takes great strides in the introduction of the role of Usha. The assumption that Indian women after a certain age would only focus on family and are too old to be sexual beings are challenged with Usha’s storyline. This step taken by the movie makes room in society, to acknowledge that women of various age groups are still human beings with wants and desires and should be allowed just as men are to be in charge of their sexual freedom. Usha enjoying reading erotic literature in her bedroom is harming nobody. As a widow and as a woman no matter what her age, she still has needs and should not be cast aside as she is in the movie simply for indulging in her pleasure.
Movies such as this one, if not changing the society entirely do help as setting a place for women to discuss their desires more bravely as it isn’t as unheard of. It provides the stepping stone and the space for women to psuh forward their truths and be comfortable enough to not have to hide their literature behind religious texts, or change clothing in a bathroom stall or carry the mental strain that comes with living a double life simply because they want to stay true to themelves alongside pleasing others.
The power of making movies with a changed perspective and not the repeated patriarchal kind is that it shows its audience that it recognizes them and their struggles and that we aren’t suffering alone. The need of the hour is coming together and supporting each other. These four women all struggled with their own desires but in their own paths without the support of anyone. Women need to support each other and notice each other and ensure that our voices are heard.
Movies being made about the rebel daughter, the trapped wife and the yearning older aunt, are important to show women who are in these situations or similar that they aren’t alone that their struggles are experienced elsewhere and that its time to start a conversation and provide an atmosphere wherein these conversations can take place. It can educated society to sit up and take notice of those women who are suffocating and feeling ashamed for their natural feelings, for their ambitions and for their identity. Society needs to become welcoming and open and it is only through the acknowledgement made in movies like these that this can be achieved.
Women voices are not celebrated in Indian society and when spoken in cinema they are used for the fulfillment of the men.
India has to recognize the boundaries they keep on women and the lives they force them to lead and push them to having secret outlets to find any happiness and pleasure.
It is also important that the various roles these women had even while leading double lives and attaining the pleasure they seeked, they still upheld the demands asked of them. Society needs to understand that women seeking pleasure would not disrupt their other dedications.
Even while changing clothes and meeting boys and singing to her favourite music Rehana still worked in her families shop. Even while Shireen chased her ambition in sales and achieved praise she still maintained a household and looked after her three children. Even while Leela was figuring her life out she was still working as a beautician and chasing her ambition to work with weddings and travel the world. Even as Usha was reading erotica and taking swimming classes, she still fought against builders trying to destroy the housing structure and still acted as the aunty everyone needed her to be.
The desire of women does not derail their ultimate character. It doesn’t define women it is simply a part of them.
Making well rounded real characters help make women strong and brave when they’re able to identify with the characters on screen.
In regards to the male characters, the film here holds a mirror up to society. It shows us just how patriarchal our society is. It is not villanizing characters as these kind of people do exist in our mainstream culture. Those who believe a women should be at home, a woman should be dressed a certain way, a woman should only exist for marriage and children, a woman should not have any place in the context of sexuality and its expression. It is from these ideas that women are controlled and harassed. By members of the public and within their families as well.
Constant policing of female bodies is a reality that needs to stop but for that to occur its recognition is vital.
As the actress who plays Usha, Ratna Pathak says in an interview, its about time in regards to having a movie with no age bars on sexuality. Women do continue to have desires of all kinds, emotional and sexual at every age.
Films that start a conversation are vital in providing the base on which people can talk about subjects that are considered difficult to approach. It helps in normalizing the subjects that are deemed ‘dirty’.
It is time that women are given the freedom to express themselves the way men have been granted it. This movie makes you recognize the double standard and the exhausting lengths women will go to for the smallest steps towards pleasure, all while maintaining the picture perfect ideal they need to maintain for society.
Rehana finds the Burkha as inhibitor to her self expression, however even through her fancy clothing and style she is ultimately rejected by her college crowd that she changed for. This is another sign of women not supporting women where her so called friends betray her as she spends time with a boy who got one of them pregnant. At the reveal of her theft, the boy distances himself from her too and ultimately she is alone, facing the brunt and disappointment of her family and lacking the friends she set out to have through her freedom of expression. She comments at the last scene where all four women are sitting around reading Lipstick Dreams, that stories like Rosy, mislead them into thinking they can also live a life like the titular character. However she is met with Ushas firm resolve that these stories provide courage to chase your dreams. Even after the public humiliation on Usha and the path she took through the courage she found through Rosy, Usha still says she would not want to veil her desire.
The metaphorical Burkha, inhibiting women from seeking the metaphorical lipstick, desires they yearn for is brought across ingeniously through the struggle of these four women living in the same house and experiencing parallel struggles but struggles alone.
The scene of all four women at the end sitting together and reading from Ushas erotica through which our narration has been carried is one of vague uncertainty for their future which ultimately makes the film all the more real. The lack of having perfect tied up endings shows that this is a mirror to society and this movie is just the start of addressing the needs and equality of women.
The very fact that the movie itself, before its release, had trouble with the censor board for having ‘lady oriented’ story and sexual scenes and abusive words shows the fact that Bollywood is only used to sex objectifying women in a crass or overly erotic manner. With very little focus on women and their sexuality.
It shows the willingness of women to take risks to achieve their desires. The movie turns the usual route of sexual expression in women wherein the scenes with Leela and Usha, their sexual expression are not shown in a way that the male gaze can benefit. It is not for arousal or voyeuristic consumption of the male audience but to show the natural desire of the women.
It is a movie that is making a space for women to be recognized and felt seen. It is unabashedly real and shows imperfect characters fighting for small wins within a life of boundaries and suffocation. It is the need of the hour to start listening to women and to stop shaming them for acts that men are constantly proud to discuss with regards to themselves.
It is providing women with the smallest of expected freedoms that are rightfully theirs to begin with. Be it their sexual desire and needs or their ambition in a career or the affection and support from a husband or the ability to wear the clothes they want, dance and sing and enjoy the smallest of joys that men take for granted and women have to move mountains for.
Ultimately we are watching the lives of four women who all resort to desperate measures of lying, stealing and living double lives to get a semblance of freedom. The films main question is that which is brought to attention by Rehana while she is at the protest against the jean ban, staring dead-pan down the camera lens: ‘Why does our freedom scare you so?’
References
Rooney, E. (2016). The Effects of Sexual Objectification on Women's Mental Health - Applied Psychology OPUS - NYU Steinhardt. Retrieved from https://steinhardt.nyu.edu/appsych/opus/issues/2016/spring/rooney
Sharma, K. (2017). Why isn’t marital rape a criminal offence in India? - Times of India. Retrieved from https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/relationships/love-sex/Why-isnt-marital-rape-a-criminal-offence-in-India/articleshow/54223996.cms
Attachment Styles (co written with Ruchita Pagare)
Scura, Ambvi and Ava, three childhood best friends, once got into a heated argument. While the matter of conflict was the same, each one had a different approach to it which involved diverse flow of thoughts. Scura, the calm one, decided to resolve the strife by engaging in a problem-solving approach, by considering each one’s point of view and expressing her feelings to her friends. Ambvi, the aggressive one, resorted to derogating the other two, by passing insensitive and abusive remarks and being critical and controlling of the situation. Ava, the avoidant one, planned on escaping the situation and crying over the fight rather than confronting with true feelings and emotions.
The girls above displayed three different attachment styles; Secure, Ambivalent and Avoidant Attachment styles respectively. Formation of attachment styles is considered to be a developmental process that does not stop after childhood, and in fact, continues later in life as well. Various life domains can be influenced by an individual's style of attachment, like interpersonal relationships, physical and mental health, behaviours and conduct, etc. John Bowlby, in the 1950s, carried an extensive research on the concept of attachment which he described as a "lasting psychological connectedness between human beings."
Following Bowlby’s research, psychologist Mary Ainsworth, in 1970s, proposed three major styles of attachment: secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment, and avoidant-insecure attachment. Researchers Main and Solomon, further added a fourth attachment style, i.e., disorganized-insecure attachment.
1.Secure Attachment - During childhood years, secure attachment style can be seen to be forming when children get upset on not seeing their caregivers around, nonetheless, are confident of their return. In the adolescence stage, this attachment style garners the ability for the adolescents to express their feelings and to ask for help from their caregivers because they can confide in them for guidance and support. Research indicates that such adolescents have better emotional intelligence. Further, a study revealed that secure attachment styles are associated with formation of trusting and long-lasting relations, having high self-esteem, being comfortable in sharing one’s feelings and seeking out social support.
2.Ambivalent Attachment – Ambivalent Attachment style can be formed when, in the absence of the caregiver, the baby gets extremely upset, and in return, displays aggressive behaviour towards them. Such adolescents experience anger towards their parents for not being available or for being a source of fear or abuse. Such individuals tend to be highly suspicious and reluctant in forming close relationships. Results of a classic study by Cassidy & Berlin link ambivalent attachment style to low maternal availability. Further, such individuals are often described as clingy and over-dependent.
3.Avoidant Attachment – When babies choose to ignore or avoid the caregivers and their absence, an avoidant attachment style is said to be formed. During teenage years, when a child’s needs are constantly neglected and are often punished by the attachment figures for voicing their needs, they resort to avoiding and ignoring the attachment figures. In such situations, individuals learn that their needs will remain unmet and thus begin to suppress the same. Further, research has highlighted that when faced with struggles, such individuals choose not to express their feelings and also resist taking help no matter how critical the situation is. Such individuals have troubles with intimacy, invest little emotions in relationships and are unwilling and unable to share their thoughts and feelings.
4.Disorganized Attachment - In this attachment style, there isn’t any clear attachment pattern. A baby shows both, avoidance and aggression towards the caregiver. Research states that when parents themselves portray inconsistent behaviour or are a source of both, fear and comfort, then disorganized attachment style is formed. Teenagers with this attachment style are unpredictable, disoriented and confused. They often feel helpless and want help but are afraid of approaching people who are willing to provide help.
In general, factors that influence the development of an insecure attachment style involve multiple elements. One circumstance may involve separation from the attachment figure due to death, marriage, sickness, etc., which can prove to be life changing for an adolescent. Another aspect might involve individuals being exposed to emotional abuse, wherein, for example, they might be referred as ‘troublesome’, ‘nothing but pain’, etc. by the caregivers, thus adversely affecting their attitudes. This is also true when individuals are inflicted with physical or sexual abuse by the caregivers themselves or when attachment persons, instead of actively protecting individuals, do nothing about the adolescent being abused. Similarly, when a teenager is experiencing trauma, instead of lending support and reassurance (by saying that “I am there for you”), when caregivers neglect or blame the individuals, insecure attachment styles can be formed. The personality of the attachment figure also plays an important role. If caregiver’s attachment style with their respective caregiver was insecure (e.g., ambivalent attachment style), the vicious cycle might continue to exist.
An individual’s attachment style develops in the childhood, progresses in adolescence and continues to influence his/her personality throughout their life. Both, secure and insecure styles play a major role in how a person forms and maintains relationships. However, a person can modify their attachment style using positive coping mechanisms and social support. Thus, if insecure attachment styles are dealt with at the right time, interpersonal and intrapersonal functioning can be improved manifold.
Rise Of Cognitive Revolution
Cognitive Psychology started in the 1950s. It is a division of psychology that studies the mental processes of memory, attention, problem solving, emotion, intelligence, learning ability and perception.
Ulric Neissar (1967) defined Cognition as processes by which sensory input is transferred, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered and used.
The Cognitive Revolution expanded beyond cognitive psychology. It included education, experimental psychology, linguistics, computer science, artificial intelligence and neuroscience.
It was pioneered by many Harvard scholars, such as , George Miller and Jerome Bruner and Ulric Neisser. George Miller took computer science aspects, of information processing and memory, and applied it to human beings. He conducted an experiment proving that humans could remember an average of seven items at a time (plus or minus 2). He put out an article which he called ‘The Magical Number Seven,Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Information’ (1956). Jerome Bruner and George Miller started the Harvard Center for Cognitive Studies. In 1967, Ulric Neisser published the primary textbook entitled ‘Cognitive Psychology’. The Revolution of Cognitive Psychology saw communication between European and American psychologists as well as an interdisciplinary approach referred to as cognitive sciences.
The Cognitive Revolution was predicated on the possibility that brains both human and animal are process control computers contrived by evolution through natural selection. The environment is assessed through sensory or perceptual processes. The results are symbolized by values stored in memories. These values are manipulated by mental operations (perception and thought). The results of deduction and inferences are used to control behavior.
During war and post war years, technological developments had an impact on psychology. A computer can be described by its inputs i.e. stimuli and outputs i.e. behaviors. It also includes processing and storage. With the emergence of computers, a comparison was made to the mind as an information processing device. Information processing approach saw cognition as computational in nature, with the mind being the software and the brain being the hardware.
Waugh and Norman (1965) gave the model of primary and secondary memory. Primary Memory was a short term memory was said to be independent of Secondary Memory, long term memory storage system. They modified William James Information Processing Model, by quantifying process of primary memory. Primary Memory could be seen as a storage compartment, which would displace an item occupying a slot to store a new memory.
Computers were assigned more and more complicated tasks to perform. In 1956 John McCarthy a computer scientist, coined the term “Artificial Intelligence” (AI). Researchers realized computers might reproduce high level cognition. The insight behind AI was that computers (and people) weren’t simply number crunchers but symbol manipulators. They represent symbol structure interpret them and manipulate them.
Are computers our best models to study the human mind? Having learnt that the development of computers led to the comparison of the mind as an information processing unit and forming the basis of cognition being seen as computational in nature, I do agree that computers are our best models to study the human mind due to their similarity. This is because, computers gave psychologists an entirely new model for their studies, with the brain as a machine which takes care of processing and storage and the mind running the system.
Steven Pinker wrote a book called ‘The Blank Slate’ (2002) wherein he spoke about the brain processing information and that thinking was a kind of computation. Alan Turing and computer scientists Alan Newell and Marvin Minsky called this the computational theory of the mind. Computational theory is also called cognitive science. This solved the mind-body problem. It states that beliefs and desires are information which are then seen as configuration of symbols. The symbols represent physical matter such as chips in a computer or neurons in the brain. They are triggered by external factors through sense organs. These symbols can bump into each other to create new symbols. Eventually they bump into matter connected to the muscles and cause behavior. Computational theory therefore fits as it includes desire and belief in behavior explanations.
Cognitive Science states that the brain is a processor. The factors to focus on here are that firstly the brain doesn’t simply take information and store it but processes it in different ways that are depended on the design on the processor. Secondly, the brain is made up of modules that are universal but differ slightly among individuals, these modules are interconnected and have their own functions. In the same way a computer can have a separate math processor dedicated to arithmetic operations. Similarly the brain also has separate dedicated processors for different activities. The fact that the brain has individual processors for different abilities was proved by Pinker, who pointed out that brain lesions affected the ability to recognize faces in someone with prosopagnosia. The information processing approach given by cognitive psychology functions on the assumptions that information made available by the environment is processed by processing systems in the mind these are attention, perception and short term memory. The processing system then transforms or alters the information in systematic ways. This information processing resembles that in computers. Computers alter information, stores the information and produces an output (ie see in humans as behavior).
Critique
Most models and theories under information processing are based largely on experiments carried out under controlled settings. Thus, it could be said to lack ecological validity. Cognitive processes in a laboratory setting are carried out in isolation from other cognitive and motivational factors. The data therefore may not be applicable to real world situations. Humans are also influenced by emotional and motivational factors in their cognitions.
Since computers were originally designed around a brain model and helped advance our understanding of the brain due to their similarities currently computers are the best models we have to study the human mind. However with developing technological advancements and improvements on computer models we can form better understandings and comparisons between the brain and its computational information processing structure.
References
Retrieved from https://www.cs.princeton.edu/~rit/geo/Miller.pdf.
Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/chapter/reading-the-cognitive-revolution-and-multicultural-psychology/.
Retrieved from http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/20689/1/Unit-4.pdf
Retrieved from https://www.emcp.com/intro_pc/reading11.htm.
Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/information-processing.html.
Retrieved from https://cbmm.mit.edu/sites/default/files/documents/Langley_AAAI17_SoI.pdf.
Gender Roles and its Effects on Eating Disorders
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines sex as the “biological characteristics that define humans as female or male.”
Gender is defined as “socially constructed characteristics of women and men – such as norms, roles and relationships of and between groups of women and men.”
Sex is defined at birth as it is based on ones biological characteristic. Gender is a spectrum and depends on how one chooses to identify, as male, female or non binary. Non Binary is having a gender that is in between or beyond male and female, or having no gender.
Keys (1964) showed that men of 20 to 30 years experienced weight loss, depression and fatigue during enforced starvation. A conclusion was reached that both men and women who starve themselves experience similar complications. But it’s their motives that differentiate.
Herzog et al. (1992) stated that compared to heterosexual wome, homosexual women were less concerned with weight and were more satisfied with their bodies.
Therefore within gender roles one can also differentiate based on sexual orientation.
Gupta et al. (1993) conducted a study exploring the relation of gender to weight and body satisfaction. It was found that males having greater weight were more satisfied with their bodies. However in females, having greater weight led to body dissatisfaction and higher drive for thinness. Therefore in regards to weight there is a drive in opposite directions for males and females that is, for thinness and for bulk.
Olivardia et al. (1995), in a study designed to assess the characteristics of eating-disordered men, concluded that eating psychopathologies have similar features in men and women. However some differences have been found.
Hudson, Hiripi, Pope, and Kessler (2007) conducted a U.S. population survey from 2001 to 2003. The lifetime prevalence rates for males with anorexia and bulimia were 0.3% and 0.5%, respectively, compared to 0.9% and 1.5% for females with anorexia and bulimia.
Hay, Loukas, and Philpott (2005) found men were less likely to self-induce vomiting to control their weight as compared to women.
Ackard et al. (2008) found eating disorder symptoms were more prevalent among males who reported a greater number of sexual partners, irrespective of gender of sex partner.
Eating Disorders are experienced by both men and women. The physical consequences of them are similar however the eating disorder in itself are inverse. The role of gender in society comes with gender appropriate behaviors and expectations and with this leads to formation of struggles that are faced by each gender.
Gender Roles
The term sex, as mentioned above, characterizes humans as male or female based on biology. Gender however is a fluid construct, as what an individual indentifies themselves as, that is, male or female or non binary. When a person identifies their gender with their given biological sex they are cisgendered.
Gender Roles are the ways in which men and women are expected to behave that align with their chosen gender.
Sandra Bem in 1974 constructed the BEM Sex Role Inventory, which aims at assessing traits that people possess as masculine or feminine or androgynous ie combination of both traits.
Bem 1981, states Masculinity is the traditional behavioral expectation in men and Femininity is the traditional behavior expectation in women.
A common example is the idea that women should take care of children while the men work. It is also seen in restrictive rules such as boys don’t cry and girls shouldn’t swear. There are also gender specific activities. In such a manner, eating disorders also vary in terms of gender roles.
Eating Disorders
An Eating Disorder is a medical illness wherein there are severe disturbances in a person’s eating behavior. Usually seen in individuals who are constantly worrying over their body image and their intake of food. They appear usually during adolescence and can be life threatening. People who are dissatisfied with their body image and place excessive value on their weight tend to have eating disorders.
Women tend to face pressures to look a certain way in order to be considered desirable. The topic of an eating disorder has been normalized as it is expected to be seen in female teens. Girls constantly compare themselves with the images of models seen on billboards and in magazine or with actresses gracing the movies and tv screens. The constant ideal body that is praised in society is chased after by young girls who feel as if they won’t be accepted unless they look the same. The internet has added to the issue as it is a constant source for comparison. People who are unhappy with their bodies are constantly viewing people who they feel are better than them and further internalize an ideal body that they must strive for.
The comparison also exists amongst their peers and the acceptance by society and their social circles of ‘popular’ girls having a certain body type and image.
Due to this association of the term eating disorder with adolescent females, men are less likely to notice or speak out about their eating disorders.
In males, an eating disorder can be observed, as stated earlier, as inverse to that seen in females. While female focus on losing weight, men focus on adding and building to become muscular. The gender role for men in society is that of a strong muscular individual. The overemphasis on exercise is seen. Eating Disorders for men can stem from the same media exposure as seen with women, wherein muscular and bigger men are constantly portrayed as the ideal type. Personal history of teasing and bullying, as also faced by women, can be
another reason.
Men could also focus on bulking up for athletic pursuits which could lead to a dangerous level.
Anorexia Nervosa
Anorexia Nervosa is a psychological illness under eating disorders. It is a Greek term meaning ‘nervous absence of appetite’. It was used in 1873 by Sir William Gull, the personal physician to Queen Victoria. An individual suffering from anorexia nervosa deals with body image distortion wherein they view themselves as overweight even if they are actually underweight.
There are two types within anorexia which are Restricting Type, wherein a person severely restricts food intake. They may eat only one meal, or ensure only low calorie intake. The second type is binge eating and purging, in this the person follows restrictive food intake as mentioned earlier but in certain periods resorts to binge eating and then followed with purging. Purging is in the form of inducing vomiting or excessive laxative use.
Over time this could lead to thinning bones, brittle hair, low blood pressure and organ failure.
People with anorexia nervosa may spend a lot of time thinking about their body and their food intake. They would have rigid eating patterns and may get anxious around meal times. Girls with anorexia may experience delayed menstruation. A person with anorexia would avoid meals frequently. They would obsessively check out their body. Someone with this illness would have low self esteem and suicidal thoughts or behaviors.
Recent Research
A team of researchers in March 2017 at the University of California San Diego School of Medicine, created the first cellular model of anorexia nervosa (AN), by reprogramming induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) that were taken from adolescent females with eating disorders. The neurons created showed a new gene that contributes to pathophysiology of anorexia.
In another study in July 2018 researchers at the University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, adolescents with anorexia who had received extensive treatment and had started regaining weight, had their brains studied. It was found that they had altered brain activity which could lead to relapse.
In September 2016, a team from Stanford, headed by Jason Nagata, MD, published findings that among teens who have anorexia, bone density didn’t differ between genders but depending on how malnourished one was.
In early 2017, Shiri Sharvit and James Lock started a team to work towards helping parents with eating disorders incorporate a healthy eating lifestyle for their children. Shiri Sharvit spoke out about the lacking information in fathers having eating disorders as compared to mothers and stated that it was due to the stigma attached. They published a paper in March 2018 regarding their process.
Conclusion
Anorexia Nervosa is an eating disorder seen in people who don’t eat an adequate amount of food or don’t maintain the minimal weight for Body Mass Index.
Usually this disorder comes up in young adulthood or adolescent years and can lead to long term severe consequences such as infertility, anemia, kidney damage, liver damage, osteoporosis, heart problems.
Eating disorders have the highest mortality rate among other mental illness, with Anorexia Nervosa being the highest of any psychiatric illness. It is the third most common chronic illness in adolescents.
There is a fixated mindset wherein the person sees themselves as being too heavy even if the person is underweight.
We live in a world filled with constant comparison and pressure to look a certain way, which leads to dissatisfaction and contributes to depressive and suicidal states.
Research on anorexia often excludes males making it hard to know whether there are different consequences in boys and girls which due to the rising number on males diagnosed is rising, is an issue.
The concept of dieting and yearning to be thin for females and the reverse anorexia need for bulking up and over exercising seen in males have been around for so long that they are now expected and assumed normal. This normalcy minimizes the severity that comes from this life threatening eating disorder.
The need of the hour is to study the way eating disorders are seen in men and women due to the differential gender expectations and battling the idea of normalcy.
References
-Hoek, H. W. (n.d.). Describe gender role as a social construct vs biological gender (url) BEM and integration. doi:10.1097
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-Anderson, C. B., & Bulik, C. M. (n.d.). Gender differences in compensatory behaviors, weight and shape salience, and drive for thinness.
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-Greenberg, S. T., & Schoen, E. G. (n.d.). Males and Eating Disorders: Gender-Based Therapy for Eating Disorder Recovery.
-Cotrufo, P., Iannaccone, M., & Cella, S. (n.d.). Biological Gender, Sexual Orientation and Gender Role in Eating Disorders [Abstract].
-Hoek, H. W. (n.d.). Incidence, prevalence and mortality of anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders [Abstract].
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Social Design - Social Psychology
Social Design are often described as how settings can best serve human desires and requirements. Robert Sommer defines Social Design as working with people rather than for them; involving people in the planning and management of the spaces around them. Sommer said that building user needs should be accounted in the design process. Social designers cannot achieve these objectives working alone. The goals may only be realized only within the structures of larger organizations which include the people for whom a project is planned. (as cited in Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2016, p. 312)
Koskinen and Hush (as cited in Chen, Chen, Hummels, & Koskinen ) distinguished different ways in which designers can understand the social, utopian, molecular, and sociological concepts. One of the points they talk about is that the definition of “the social” depends on the ideological and practical background of the researchers involved, and how this definition in turn is reflected in design projects. Participatory design combines fieldwork with real users. Social Design places importance on going to places and working with people and staying connected with real situations. For social design the relationship that must be built is collaborative and respectful of local habits and customs.
Social Design has six main goals, these are, matching which is, a physical setting that matches the needs and activities of their occupants. Satisfying building users, this is important as the users must spend the significant parts of their lives working and residing in the setting. Change the behavior, these are changes to productivity, or betterment of the residents. Enhancing the building users personal control which is reducing the users stress by giving them the ability to control their setting. Facilitating social support that is designs encouraging cooperation and assistance and finally to have imageability that is the ability of the building to help occupants to find their way around without being lost. (as cited in Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2016, p. 314)
Positive Social Design is seen in the repurposing of the Tata Group’s Bombay House. In July 2018, the Bombay House after undergoing a 9 month renovation was opened with a new purpose. The building included a transformed basement space from offices to a whole room dedicated to the welfare of street animals. Save Our Strays, an NGO based in Mumbai posted about the refurbished room which now stands as a kennel for surrounding neighborhood animals to take shelter. The room provides a spacious area for dogs who are living around the area can have a meal, drink water, take shelter from the sun or rain. (As cited in Times Of India)
The Toronto Humane Society was referred to by an investigator as a ‘house of horrors’. It was filled with infections, filthy living conditions for animals, scarce amount of food and the no euthanasia policy it chose to follow led to animals being sick and suffering and dying without any medical care. Animals were kept trapped for years languishing in a small cage. A cat was found trapped in a small ceiling vent, forgotten and starved to death. Poor sanitation and mixing of sickand healthy animals lead to infections being spread. The manager, Tim Trow, was repeatedly asked by veterinarians to euthanize sick animals and end their suffering. “The animals are left to suffer to death in their cages in order that Tim Trow can maintain his artificially low euthanasia statistics which he uses for marketing purposes," states the sworn statement of Kevin Strooband, OSPCA investigator. Trow would yell at employees when they provided animals with water, or stopped to clean cages. The overwhelming problem in the shelter was the sheer number of animals: more than 1,000 in a space designed to hold no more than 600.
Under OSPCA operating The Toronto Humane Society, 60 sick or wounded animals were euthanized while others were adopted out or sent to larger shelters. The number dropped to fewer than 500. Former employees were rehired and ensured only those who truly cared for the animals were in charge of running the place. (as cited in NBC News)
An animal shelter or pound refers to a place where stray, lost, abandoned, sick, wounded or surrendered animals are kept and rehabilitated. Shelters provide adoption of these animals. Many shelters posses open spaces such as those based on farms and spacious living facilities. Animals are provided with care and comfort and security from the streets. In negatively social designed situations, such as THS, the overcrowding and cramped living conditions animals experience sensory overload, anxiety and neglect. Animals can start fighting and end up living in filthy areas. Animals end up getting sick and suffering till they eventually die. Euthanizing a sick animal is the humane course of action. It is the compassionate road to take.
In the positive social design example we see the use of the matching goal. That is the needs are being met, those needs of shelter and security of the stray animals are being provided by the kennel whereas in the negative social design animals are not safe and secure and would be safer on the streets.
The goal of satisfaction is also met in the positive social design example that is the stray animals satisfaction and comfort is met with the providence of space and food and water. Whereas in the negative social design of the Toronto Humane Soceity, the animals were neglected and suffering and not satisfied. With the negative social design example, the maltreatment of the animals caused fear. This overcrowding and ill-treatment leads to the animals feeling afraid which shows a negative change in their behavior. However taking ill-treated animals and providing them with open spaced caring shelters such as the positive social design example animals would tend to feel more secure and more likely to be rehabilitated. This rehabilitation can lead to betterment for community spaces and reduce fear of people around strays as well as reduce any fear based attacks. The colorful walls and bright light from the windows, spacious area without cages and small beds and toys for the animals definitely play a huge role in changing behavior and making them feel safe.
The lack of cages in the Tata Group’s Bombay House kennel provides the animals with a sense of control. The animals of the surrounding area are free to move about and play or leave and return whenever they feel like it. This personal control also makes them less defensive which occurs when stuffed in overcrowded conditions and small spaces and cages. The goal of social support is seen lacking in the negative social design example as the animals were neglected and uncared for. The conditions of interaction were limited, and animals were forgotten and unloved.
Another case for rehabilitation of dogs is seen in Ankara, Turkey. The Ankara Metropolitan Municipality stated that they help stray, injured and sick animals at their rehabilitation centers.
Four ambulances and five animal transport vehicles are used to help animals in the city.In 2016, 8,882 animals were helped and in 2017 10,619 injured stray animals were treated. The municipality’s team also closely follows vaccinations of stray animals. In 2017, 7,750 animals were vaccinated rabies and internal and external parasites. Aside from cats and dogs, they also rescue monkeys, donkeys, eagles and goats.
For positive social design, architects should consult and work together with psychologists. They should keep in mind the needs of their target audience and ensure they are providing a design that helps their future user base. In the case of positive social design for shelters or kennels, the safety and security of the animals should be the main goal. Shelters shouldn’t overcrowd their centers and should try and provide animals with bright spaces with enough room and comfort. People who care for animals should be hired thus ensuring animals won’t experience neglect. Having a well planned architecturally designed building is not beneficial if it can’t meet the needs of the users. Shelters with yards, various rooms and big cells would be more satisfactory over small cramped spaces with tiny cells. Happier well adjusted animals are also more likely to be adopted and rehabilitated over dogs who have fear and are uneasy around people due to their unsatisfactory living conditions and poor welfare.
Thus, moving forward in the future, architects should design a structure with consultation of psychologists and keeping in mind the needs of their users. By adapting the structure with inclusion of small changes for their betterment and satisfaction they can ensure success of their project.
References
Chen, D., Chen, L., Hummels, C., & Koskinen, I. (n.d.). Social Design: An Introduction. Retrieved from http://www.ijdesign.org/index.php/IJDesign/article/viewFile/2622/719
Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
(n.d.). Retrieved from https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/tata-groups-bombay-house-opens-its-doors-to-stray-dogs-with-a-room-of-their-own/articleshow/65226003.cms
(n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.nbcnews.com/id/35880984/ns/health-pet_health/t/animal-shelter-turned-house-horrors/#.XHo_mLozbIU
(n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/more-than-10-000-stray-animals-rehabilitated-in-ankara-125843
Enhancing Resilience in Childhood
Resilience is defined as the ability of an individual to ‘bounce back’ after experiencing stress (Wald et al.2006, Meredith et al. 2011 as cited in Meadows, Miller, Robson, 2015, p. 9) Resilience also tends to be used interchangeably with persistence and positive coping and adaptation (R. R. Greene et al., 2002 as cited in Ledesma 2014 )
Resilience is an interactive concept that is concerned with the combination of serious risk experiences and a relatively positive psychological outcome despite those experiences (Rutter 2006).
There have been three approaches in understanding resilience. The first was a focus on traits present or absent in an individual. The downfall of this outlook is that it focuses on resilience as an individual trait making the ability to be resilient as finite and stable which posed a problem for developmental psychologists who viewed change as important part of their process (Rutter 2007 as cited in Meadows, Miller, Robson 2015, p. 12.)
The second approach shows resilience as a process by observing how people manage their issues. Its not just the end stage but the process of growth, this stage is well supported in research in positive psychology (Seligman and Csikszentmihakyi 2000 as cited in Meadows, Miller and Robson 2015, p. 12).
Finally in 2002, Richardson proposed the theory that resilience is an internal drive for self actualization. Thus, this approach focuses on the underlying motivation that drives an individual in dire circumstances (as cited in Meadows, Miller and Robson 2015, p. 12).
There are two associations with resilience and well being. The main effect of a resilience factor on a stressor is that the experience of the stressor is an independent direct effect on well being. While in a buffering effect, the resilience factor on a stressor counteracts the negative effect of stress on the well being. Most resilience resources enhance ones well being and combats stress. Evidence of having sufficient resilient factors are only observable in the stressors presence (Meadows, Miller and Robson 2015 p. 20).
Research regarding children focused on resilience in relation to patterns of positive adaptation among individuals despite being exposed to risks that might harm their development (Luthar, 2006 ; Masten, 2007, as cited in Masten, Herbers , Cutuli and Lafavor 2008).
The impact of prolonged adversities or adversities occurring in sensitive period of development , as well as the negative impact of wars, disasters, displacement, poverty and pandemics on the global development of children show the extent to which the interest for resilience understanding is present (Master 2014 as cited in Masten and Barnes 2018).
In 2000 MacDonald and Validivieso stated that the surrounding environments provide developmental opportunities, emotional and motivational support systems and thus promote resilience (as cited in Morrison and Allen 2007).
Risk and Protective Factors
The term Risk refers to the environmental characteristics that increase behavioral and emotional problems present in children while Protective Factors are those environmental and individual characteristics that lead to an increase in positive adaptation in children (Martinez-Torteya, Bogat, von Eye,Levendosky 2009)
The Protective Factors include the children’s individual characteristics, family connection and their surrounding community all of these lead to the development of resilience (Masten and Garmezy 1985, Werner and Smith 1992 as cited in Luthar, Cicchetti and Becker 2000). The individual characteristics needed for the child to be resilient are effective problem solving and the ability to adapt to stress.
According to Masten and Reed (as cited in Snyder and Lopez 2002, p. 82) the child should have positive self perceptions and a positive outlook on life. The additional skills valued by self and society and a good sense of humor also work towards the child having resilience. Characteristics of self efficacy, self worth, problem solving, faith and humor have been found to predict positive adaptation. The family attributes of loving and supporting parents are necessary.
The family having a high socioeconomic advantages and an organized home environment is vital. These positive relationship bonds across other involved adults and peers are also predictors of resilience. Within the community the child must feel safe, have opportunities to learn, support for their traditions and religious values.
A study conducted by Kärkkäinen, Räty and Kasanen (2006 as cited in Kärkkäinen, R., Räty, H., & Kasanen, K. 2009) found that the parental belief in a child’s innate ability is related to the trust in the child’s educational competence even when faced with adversity, thus educational resilience being based on parental confidence in the child.
Early in a childhood when children are held to high expectations from surrounding adults in their lives they start believing in themselves (Pizzolongo, P., & Hunter, A. 2011).
In a classroom setup a child can learn independence and autonomy (Alfassi 2004 as cited in Morrison and Allen 2007). To promote motivation and a positive academic self concept teachers should maintain high expectations for students (Waxman et al. 2001 as cited in Morrison and Allen 2007). While cooperative group assignments can help build positive classroom environments and reduce peer rejection thus maintaining positive mental health outcomes (Morrison and Allen 2007).
Bullying
A study was conducted by Bowes, Maughan, Caspi, Moffitt and Arseneault (2010) wherein a sample of 1,116 pairs of twins aged 10 to 12. They looked into predictors of positive adjustments after being bullied in primary school. It was seen that after a two year period following bullying, there were less emotional and behavioral problems if maternal and sibling warmth and a positive atmosphere at home were present. The bullied twin which got more maternal warmth had less behavioral issues than the twin who received less maternal warmth. This shows the protective effect within family in protecting young children from negative outcomes of being bullied (Bowes,Maughan,Caspi,Moffit and Arseneault 2010).
Wolke and Skew in 2012 suggested that children who are bullied both at home as well as at school show higher chances of having emotional and behavioral problems compared to children who are bullied in one area or not at all. (as cited in Sapouna,M. and Wolke, D. 2013)
The study carried out by Sapouna,M. and Wolke,D. (2013) found that adolescents who were frequently bullied but who reported lower depression were males with higher self esteem and who experienced less conflict with parents and had not been victimized by siblings than those who reported more depression. While the adolescents that reported lower delinquency amid frequently experiencing bullying tended to be female, had higher self esteem and had less disputes with parents and were not victimized by their siblings, they also had fewer close friends than those who reported more delinquency. In this study, the resilient adolescents also less likely reported truancy from school as well as frequent drug and alcohol consumption (cited in Sapouna, M. and Wolke, D. 2013)
D. Perry et al (2010) found that with regard to peer victimization, maternal warmth was associated with lower levels while maternal overcontrol had higher levels as it makes the child have a ‘victim schema’ mindset wherein they view their parents as controlling which then effects their self image as they see themselves as powerless which contributes to them suffering from peer victimization over time (as cited in Reavis, Keane, & Calkins 2010). When parents are unresponsive, neglectful, or use excessively harsh physical punishment children then tend to be less equipped to accomplish critical developmental tasks and more likely to develop perceptions of themselves as ineffective and unworthy (Kim & Cicchetti, 2006 as cited in Turner, Finkelhor and Ormrod 2010)
Student- Teacher relationships also have an impact on peer victimization. If the relationship is a positive one it encourages self- regulatory behavior in a child and the child is less likely to be victimized. A positive student-teacher relationship also increases the awareness of a teacher to the ongoings of the victimization and could lead to intervention from the teacher. Thus a positive student teacher relationship decreases the chances of peer victimization. While in contrast, a high conflict relationship would inhibit self-regulatory behaviors in a child and reduce the awareness and chance of intervention by the teacher on the child’s behalf. (Tyson 2000 as cited in Reavis, Keane and Calkins 2010)
For students who have problematic home lives, secure attachments formed with their primary school teachers can be vital however due to the large number of students forming this kind of relationship might be difficult (Jindal-Snape and Miller 2008, p.222)
Since secure attachments for students in secondary school is important with both adults and peers, schools should take necessary steps. For example the addition of the buddy system program or through peer tutoring. This is vital for students from unstable families (Jindal-Snape and Miller 2008, p.230)
Friendship may protect children from peer victimization, as children with friends would see a decrease in victimization as those children without. However once children who are victimized gain a reputation it could lead to other children not wanting to associate with them thus leading to a cycle of victimization and friendlessness (cited in Reaves and Keane and Calkins 2010)
Reavis, Keane and Calkins study found that maternal relationships are more powerful than that of a teacher-student relationship. Moreover a child’s self regulatory behavior develops in infancy and continues to develop through preschool years with successful development based on the mother child relationship (Reavis, Keane and Kalkin 2010).
A study conducted by Turner,Finkelhor and Ormrod found that adolescents who experienced sexual abuse were resilient due to high levels of self esteem. Self – Esteem is therefore seen to play a mediating role between bullying and positive adaptation. (Turner,Finkelhor and Ormrod 2010)
Mruk (1999) puts forth the Self Esteem Theory talks about how a person’s self esteem is dependent on the extent one feels worthy of respect from others and on how competent they feel they are to face challenges.(cited in Jindal-Snape and Miller 2008, p.218) He also talks about defensive self esteem, wherein he divides it into two categories, defensive type 1 children tend to have a sense of worth but lack competence. In defensive type 2 children have a positive sense of competence due to experiences of success but have a low self worth due to a history of traumatic events or a history of negative messages about their worth (cited in Jindal-Snape and Miller 2008, p.224,225). He states that self esteem acts a buffer to help individuals cope with setbacks with regard to their self worth and their beliefs in their ability to meet challenges. Those with healthy self esteem may face the challenges and come out with personal growth while those with unhealthy self esteem may not be confident in their ability and will come out with uncertainty of their self worth (cited in Jindal-Snape and Miller 2008, p.226)
In 2000, Gilligan expanded on protective processes given by Rutter to understand key areas in resilience in at risk children. Gilligan stated that the key areas are developing self esteem through positive experiences, relationship and success, decreasing the number of problems in the child’s life, picturing their lives as developmental pathway wherein small experiences can alter the path and developing self efficacy in ensuring that they are prepared for any change. He also placed an importance on positive school experiences as a protective factor (as cited in Jindal-Snape and Miller 2008, p.219)
Jindal-Snape and Foggie (2006) speak of how children’s resilience can be developed in schools through simulated role plays or creative drama. A child can be provided with opportunities to learn how to tackle issues in a secure environment. Gilligan (2000) also talked about spare acitivites in schools increasing a student’s resilience (as cited in Jindal-Snape and Miller 2008, p. 230)
Poor self regulation has been seen as a critical factor for developing PTSD (Koenen 2006 as cited in Robson 2014, p. 10) Terror Management, under self esteem, states that people pursue positive self evaluations to hide from anxiety related feelings of threat and vulnerability (Pyszczynshi et al. 2004 as cited in Robson 2014, p.18) Baumeister et al (2013) states that self esteem supports happiness and resilience however high levels of self esteem can lead to negative outcomes such as bullying, narcissism and prejudice. (Robson 2014, p.18)
Teachers act as promoters and protective factors for high risk children. They also nurture learning skills, knowledge and self regulation and self protective skills that children must learn to use for themselves (as cited in Masten, A., Herbers, J., Cutuli, J., & Lafavor, T. 2008, p.79)
A study conducted by Cohen, Moffitt, Caspi & Taylor (2004) found that a child faced with socioeconomic deprivation had cognitive resilience in face of the adversity. This is seen due to their parents providing genetic or environmental stimulation to the children. It is seen that extraverted and sociable parents behave in cognitively stimulating ways toward their children. Some children have inherent outgoing temperaments which allows them to evoke more stimulation from their surroundings which leads to cognitive resilience (as cited in Kim-Cohen, J., Moffitt, T., Caspi, A., & Taylor, A. 2004).
Conclusion
This paper discussed Resilience in Children with a focus on the Protective Factor Model. The Protective Factors are those which enable one to be resilient. This is seen in children as internal, that is, within self as positive self image, optimistic outlook, self esteem, self regulatory behavior and easy going temperament. However when self esteem is too high drawbacks of narcissism, bullying and prejudice.
The external protective factors are within family which is seen in parental support and involvement, minimal conflicts at home, warmth and security among family members and positive sibling interactions and within community which is seen in supportive and secure attachments with teachers, safe neighborhood, positive interactions with adults and peers
In this paper there was a discussion on resilience in children, thus there was a focus on the importance of secure attachments with teachers, as children spend most of their time in schools. Especially in children who come from unstable homes the need for attachments with their teacher is high.
For children, peer interactions are vital and goes hand in hand with teachers. If bullying is present it can have a negative effect on a child’s self esteem and self concept. However children who come from supportive homes with involved parents can still come out resilient after having faced bullying while the only protective factor for other children is the teachers awareness and intervention.
Schools act as a secure environment wherein protective factors can be worked on for children through role plays and creative drama. This helps children build their protective factors in an environment that is familiar and safe for them.
Going ahead it is vital for teachers to remain alert to the needs of students and ensure they continue to act as an intervening factor to shut down bullying and provide a secure attachment to those children in their classes who may not have the support at home.
Families should work towards maintaining positive and supportive structures to ensure positive development within their children and provide the base for children to develop protective factors within themselves.
References
Bonanno, G. (2005). Resilience in the Face of Potential Trauma. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(3), 135-138. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20183007
Bowes, L., Maughan, B., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T., & Arseneault, L. (2010). Families promote emotional and behavioural resilience to bullying: evidence of an environmental effect. Journal Of Child Psychology And Psychiatry. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02216.x
Jindal-Snape, D., & Miller, D. (2008). A Challenge of Living? Understanding the Psycho-social Processes of the Child During Primary-secondary Transition Through Resilience and Self-esteem Theories. Educational Psychology Review, 20(3), 217-236. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org /stable/23363889
Kärkkäinen, R., Räty, H., & Kasanen, K. (2009). Parents' perceptions of their child's resilience and competencies. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 24(3), 405-419. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/ stable/23421701
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CBT - Nail Biting and Skin Excoriation
trigger warning
Nail Biting (onychophagia) refers to the repetitive biting and/ or chewing of the fingernails (‘Friman’ as cited in Grant, Stein, Woods & Keuthen, 2012). Initially nail biting such as other oral habits were classified as symptoms suggesting of underlying psychopathology, but now it’s simply a habit disorder unless it leads to unhealthy consequences of social issues and cuticle damage. A study by Woods et al. states that ‘nervous habits’ such as nail biting may be associated with increases in anxiety (as cited in Grant, Stein, Woods & Keuthen, 2012)
Its suggested that an connection between nail biting and anxiety with positive correlations between nail biting and Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (Klatte & Deardoff, 1984). Another suggestion is the arousal modulation theory (Evans as cited in Hansen, Tishelmian, Hawkins & Doepke, 1990) which is based on anxiety and activity level wherein when face with a demanding task individuals performance best when they self stimulate.
Skin Picking/Biting (Excoriation) is characterized by deliberate and repetitive manipulation of the skin causing tissue damage (Falkenstein, 2016). It is the picking, scratching, rubbing, digging and squeezing of the skin resulting in visible tissue damage. Most individuals excoriate their skin with their nails but others use teeth and instruments (tweezers, nail files, scissors etc.) (Keuthen et al., 2000)
Assessment should include a look at impulsive or compulsive features as well as dermatological reasoning and medical reasoning.(Arnold, Auchenbach & McElroy, 2001)
Body – focused repetitive behaviors are repetitive behaviors that lead to physical injuries and significant socio psychological distress and impairment (Snorrason et al. 2012 as cited in Roberts, O'Connor, Aardema, Bélanger & Courchesne, 2016). Triggers across these behaviors may be similar either tactile or visual cues (scab, hangnail) postures (head or face in hand) or a feeling of imperfections (Odlaug & Grant 2008 as cited in Roberts, O'Connor, Aardema, Bélanger & Courchesne, 2016)
Behavioral Perspective states that habits are learned operants maintained by positive, negative or automatic reinforcement (Watson & Dufrene, 2004 as cited in Dufrene, Watson & Kazmerski, 2008). Urges to perform these repetitive behaviors such as biting,picking and pulling are believed to be maintained by being reinforced in acting on these urges leading to the increase in pleasure and sense of accomplishment. These behaviors fall into two categories, automatic meaning they occur even outside the individuals awareness and reinforced habitually when the individual is sitting. Focused behaviors occur to control unwanted thoughts, urges or emotions precipitated by negative emotional states of anxiety and stress, tension (Falkenstein, 2016).
Behavioral Therapy
The goal of behavioral therapy is to reinforce desirable behaviors and eliminate maladaptive ones. The concept of behaviorism is based on the fact that we learn from our environment. These techniques are based on classical and operant conditioning (Cherry, 2019).
Classical Conditioning suggests that a response is learned and repeated through immediate association. Behavior therapies aim to break associations between the stimulus and undesired response (Mcleod, 2019) It is the forming of associations between stimuli wherein previously neutral stimuli is paired with a stimulus that naturally automatically evokes a response. After pairing repeatedly an association is formed and the previously neutral stimulus will come to evoke the response on its own (Cherry, 2019).
Operant Conditioning is a method of learning the occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Individuals make an association between a particular behavior and a consequence (Mcleod, 2019) The reward and punishment can either increase or decrease the frequency of the behavior. When a behavior is followed by a desirable consequence it is more likely to occur in the future and those followed by a negative consequence would less likely occur.
The goal of Behavioral Therapy is to teach clients new behaviors to minimize and or eliminate the issue.
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) This focuses on problem solving and acceptance based strategies ("DBT Therapy | Dialectical Behavior Therapy", n.d.). Dialectical refers to the process that brings opposite concepts together. It consists of 5 components namely
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Capability Enhancement: Focus on developing already existing skills. In treatment four basic skill sets are taught emotion regulation, mindfulness, interpersonal effectiveness and distress tolerance.
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Generalization: Various techniques to encourage the transfer of learned skills across all settings. People learn to apply what they’ve learned at home, school, work and society.
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Motivational Enhancement: Individualized Behavioral Treatment plans to reduce problematic issues and behaviors that negatively affect their lives. Example the use of self monitoring tracking sheets can address severe problems first
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Capability and Motivational Enhancement for therapists : Therapists need support since they deal with people who have chronic and severe issues . This support helps give therapists the space they need to avoid traumatization and burn out.
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Structuring the Environment: To ensure positive and adaptive behaviors reinforced across all environmental settings.
DBT consists of individual therapy, skill training, phone conversation and therapist consultant theme.DBT fundamentals are between validation and acceptance of the client as they are within the context of simultaneously helping them change. Change strategies include behavioral analysis of maladaptive behavior and problem solving techniques including skill training, reinforcing and punishment, cognitive modification strategies and exposure strategies (Dimeff & Linehan, 2001).
DBT skills target specific components emotional systems as its believed if an individual wants to change their behavior it can be achieved through targeting any part of system of emotions. The skill of Opposite Action uses exposure therapy where clients do the opposite of what their urges or impulses are dictating The skill of Imaginal rehearsal was changed into the term ‘Cope Ahead’ where clients imagine themselves coping effectively to a distressing situation . DBT aims to help individuals build a life worth living. It focuses on skills to accumulate positive short term of adding pleasant events and long term of developing goals that fit ones values. Individuals who struggle regulating their emotions tend to struggle with interpersonal relationships . Interpersonal effectiveness training is a collection of skills to teach individuals to mange interpersonal conflict and reinforce the environment effectively. An example of ‘Walking the Middle Path’ where individuals are taught dialectics and behavior change procedures which includes skill on behaviorism which teaches clients how positive and negative reinforcement can be strategically implemented to shape goal behavior (Linehan & Wilks, 2018).
Habit Reversal (HRT) : The effectiveness of this therapy seen by Twohig and Woods in reducing skin picking disorders. It included awareness enhancement and response training. The competent response training involved individuals making a fist for 1 minute and or picking a stimulus associated with picking.
Awareness Training (Kelly, 2019) is used to bring the individuals attention to behaviors to help them gain better self control. It is usually carried out through small steps listed below
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Looking into the mirror the person describes each detail time they carry out the behavior associated with their condition.
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Their therapist would point out each time the individual carries out their behavior repeatedly until they start to notice it for themselves
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The person learns to identify warning signs that the behavior is about to take place. Warning signs can stand for urges, thoughts or sensations.
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The person starts to identify all the situations wherein the behavior occurs
Competence Response stands for the action meant to replace the old behavior. Examples of competence response are balling your hands into fists for a minute, pursing their lips, squeezing squishy balls, sitting on hands or playing with clay. It should be an action that others don’t notice.
Awareness Training includes self monitoring.
Building Motivation helps people who are undergoing habit reversal training to prevent the behaviors from coming back. Parents and friends are asked to praise the person for their accomplishments so far.
A study found that application of HRT in nail biting and found there was a reduction nail biting episodes through a 5 month follow up (Teng, Woods & Twohig, 2006). Another study suggested patients with excoriation disorder treated with HRT over 3 sessions reported a greater decrease in skin picking at post treatment follow ups (Twohig & Woods, 2001).
Thus HRT helps patients notice early signs of picking and engaging in competence response.
Cognitive Therapy
Cognitive Therapy grew from Becks research in Depression. By examining the thoughts and dreams of depressed patients Beck found themes of anger were present and not those of defeat. Further testing found a consistent negative bias in the cognitive process of depressed patients. Cognitive Theory was developed to describe shifts in information processing (Beck & Weishaar, 1989). Research by Albert Ellis also focused on thoughts and beliefs.
Thus both Ellis and Beck thought that individuals can consciously have reason and that their underlying assumptions and beliefs are the target points for intervention. They both focus on active dialogues with clients over passive listening (Beck & Weishaar, 1989)
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) attempts to ‘induce acceptance of uncomfortable thoughts, psychological flexibility which is shifting focus from unsettling emotions and focus on what we have control over and change in behavior with a focus on values (Flujas-Contreras & Gómez, n.d.) . It addresses ideas of spirituality,values and self. It is the conscious acceptance of psychological events even if they are negative (Hayes, 2004). ACT focuses on individuals understanding their deeper values and having these values guide their motivation. In ACT clients are encouraged to live according to their values (Hayes, 2004). Values are different from goals since goals can be completed and achieved whereas values are guiding forces that are moral ideals an individual believes in (Reilly et al., n.d.). This theory focuses on conscious acceptance of psychological thoughts and emotions and events even if they are negative. If a negative thought is observed mindfully ie awareness in the present moment, might not have a negative function (Hayes, 2004).
ACT which targets avoidant processes, aims to break patterns of experiential avoidance, wherein individuals think and behave with their main is to reduce psychological distress, and increasing the frequency of behaviors that are supported by the individuals values in life. This carried out through various exercises which focus on weakening control on aversive stimuli and frame the stimuli in a new verbal context which doesn’t control the persons behavior (Capriotti, Ely, Snorrason & Woods, 2015)
ACT is seen as a useful addition to HRT as it addresses the negative reinforcement for reduction of urges and the negative affect in skin picking and nail biting. This is done through the reframing of the urge in a new context for experience of the stimulation but not compulsively followed by the individual, ACT carries this out through metaphors, defusion techniques and aims to break the control the urges have over the individual. ACT also supports clients in carrying out the behavior commitment excercises to maintain a continuous treatment plan that doesn’t stay specific to the therapists office.
When ACT is combined with HRT it is known as Acceptance – Enhance Behavior Therapy (AEBT). In a study by Flessner and colleagues (Flessner, Busch, Heideman & Woods, 2008) found combined HRT and ACT intervention with HRT introduced early and ACT introduced subsequently was found to be successful in reducing the frequency of skin picking in two patients.
A study by Capriotti et al (2015) built on Flessners study consisted of 10 1 hour sessions . In Session 1 the therapist explains the treatment and discusses skin picking with the client and conducts a functional assessment to indentify the clients triggers. Session 2 includes HRT and stimulus control wherein the client becomes aware of skin picking behavior and warning signs such as urges and competence behavior such as making fists with the hands. Stimulus control interventions are also thought to the client such as wearing gloves. Remaining sessions are for monitoring the strategies kept in placed (Capriotti, Ely, Snorrason & Woods, 2015).
ACT exercises such as experiential exercises and use of metaphors designed to enhance willingness of accepting their internal states, identifying previous attempts used that did not take, cognitive defusion techniques which aim to reduce literal meaning of language and to show that internal truths aren’t literal truths (Capriotti, Ely, Snorrason & Woods, 2015)
Value centered work is based on focused conversations and exercises such as making a list and discuss how the excoriation and the attempts to avoid it have interfered with their lives eithr in family, romantic relationships or work.
Willingness to accept activity example is such as Paper in The shoe, where clients are instructed to keep a paper inside their shoe in various sessions. Then the therapist discusses with the client the feeling of the paper in the shoe and how it was annoying when the person tried to move it to decrease discomfort but how it was less annoying when the individual accepts its presence.The therapist then links this exercise with other sense experiences that cause discomfort.
An exercise for defusion is ‘Tree in the Road’ in this exercise a traveler comes upon a fallen tree that is blocking the road they’re driving around which was earlier warned about by people they came across. A link is created between the skin picking related cognitions of not picking leading to stress. Where the warning about a fallen tree is of questionable nature and thoughts such as ‘not picking at it will drive me crazy’ is also questionable (Capriotti, Ely, Snorrason & Woods, 2015).
In the study carried out by Capriotti et al. (2015) it was found that 3 out of 4 patients had decreased excoriation and subjectively report improvement.
ACT promotes acceptance of negative thoughts and feelings as part of the human experience. In this therapy, encouraging clients to think of ways to respond to negative thoughts and emotions that are in line with ones own personal value system (Lochner, Ross & Stein, 2017)
References
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Arnold, L., Auchenbach, M., & McElroy, S. (2001). Psychogenic Excoriation. CNS Drugs, 15(5), 351-359. doi: 10.2165/00023210-200115050-00002
Beck, A., & Weishaar, M. (1989). Cognitive Therapy in Cognitive Therapy. In: Comprehensive Handbook of Cognitive Therapy. (pp. 21-36). New York: Springer.
Capriotti, M., Ely, L., Snorrason, I., & Woods, D. (2015). Acceptance-Enhanced Behavior Therapy for Excoriation (Skin-Picking) Disorder in Adults: A Clinical Case Series. Cognitive And Behavioral Practice, 22(2), 230-239. doi: 10.1016/j.cbpra.2014.01.008
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Dimeff, L., & Linehan, M. (2001). Dialectical Behavior Therapy in a Nutshell. The California Psychologist, 1-3. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7894(05)80052-8
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Flessner, C., Busch, A., Heideman, P., & Woods, D. (2008). Acceptance-Enhanced Behavior Therapy (AEBT) for Trichotillomania and Chronic Skin Picking. Behavior Modification, 32(5), 579-594. doi: 10.1177/0145445507313800
Falkenstein, M. (2016). Clinical Aspects of Hair Pulling, Skin Picking, and Nail Biting. Current Treatment Options In Psychiatry, 3(4), 375-384. doi: 10.1007/s40501-016-0096-3
Flujas-Contreras, J., & Gómez, I. Improving flexible parenting with Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: A case study. Journal Of Contextual Behavioral Science, 8, 29-35. doi: 10.1016/j.jcbs.2018.02.006
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Keuthen, N., Deckersbach, T., Wilhelm, S., Hale, E., Fraim, C., & Baer, L. et al. (2000). Repetitive Skin-Picking in a Student Population and Comparison With a Sample of Self-Injurious Skin-Pickers. Psychomatics, 41(3), 210-215. doi: 10.1176/appi.psy.41.3.210
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Lochner, C., Ross, A., & Stein, D. (2017). Excoriation (skin-picking) disorder: a systematic review of treatment options. Neuropsychiatric Disease And Treatment, 13, 1867-1872. doi: 10.2147/NDT.S121138
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Games People Play by Eric Berne, M.D.- Book Review
Dr. Eric Berne, psychologist 1964 wrote this book to introduce Transactional Analysis. Berne defines a transaction as a unit of social interaction. In chapter 2 he writes “If two or more people encounter each other in a social aggregation, sooner or later one of them will speak or give some other indication of acknowledging the presence of the others.” this is a transactional stimulus and is followed by a transactional response wherein “another person will then say or do something which is in some way related to this stimulus.”
Thus according to Berne, a transactional analysis is the process of studying interactions between people. In chapter 3 it states that transactions usually occur in programmed series which are from three sources ie the parent, adult or child, also seen in the book under structural analysis termed as ego states. Ego states (parent, child, adult) are those states a person’s experiences that from time to time change and shift. Thus as stated by Dr. Berne an individual at any moment in a social aggregation will exhibit a Parental, Adult or Child ego state and can shift from one to another.
The Parent recordings refers to the first five years of life with regard to external events as the events experienced by the child are those of the parent, events which the child experiences from an individual that is not the parent but has a parent like role are also recorded in the Parent. Some examples are statements such as ‘never talk to strangers’ , ‘ look both ways before crossing the road’. The Child are the recordings in the brain of internal events that are associated with external events perceived by the child thus these refer to the childs emotions. Recordings here start from childbirth and last till age 5.
When a child has reached age 1 they exhibit gross motor skills. This is the beginning of the Adult stage.In this stage the child begins to recognise a difference between the Parent stage of what they perceive and the Child stage ie the emotions they experience and is able to objectively process the data.
Dr. Berne talks of complementary transactions, crossed transactions and ulterior transactions. In a complementary transaction responses are appropriate and expected. Thus these transactions are normal and healthy and can include critical gossip ie Parent - Parent, solving an issue ie Adult- Adult, and playing ie Child - Child or Parent - Child. Crossed Transactions occur when communication is broken off, it leads to the most social difficulties. In these situations ego states don’t match ie when an Adult stimulus is presented such as ‘where are my cufflinks’ the adult-adult response would be ‘on the desk’ but in crossed transactions the response could be ‘you always blame me for everything’ making it a child-parent response and not matching the stimulus. Ulterior Transactions are those which consist of an activity wherein more than 2 ego states are present simultaneously. This occurs at a social level and a psychological level and forms the basis of games. In the social level it is a direct and clear message of need while in a psychological level it is more hidden.
The book begins with Berne discussing the idea that any social intercourse ie transaction, has a biological advantage over none at all. This is based on research which highlights the importance of ‘strokes’ for children which was given by Rene Spitz, who discovered infants deprived of handling ie did not receive any strokes, had started to decline physically and emotionally and were likely to succumb to diseases later on. Berne then built on this to show sensory deprivation in adults having severe effects such as transient psychosis or temporary mental disturbances. Biologically sensory deprivation leads to degenerative changes in the nerve cells. Berne thus states a stroke is a fundamental unit of social action and an exchange of strokes is classified as a transaction. Stroking was referred to as stimulus-hunger. Adults, just like children, need physical contact. However it is noticed, that adults learn to compromise for recognition. This was given the term recognition-hunger.
Short-term ways in which people can structure their time when with others. These, in order of their increasing complexity and their increasing potential to provide strokes, are: (1) withdrawal (e.g. day dreaming); (2) rituals (e.g. greetings); (3) activities (e.g. problem-solving); (4) pastimes (e.g. discussing holidays); (5) games; and (6) intimacy. Intimacy is the most satisfying form of social interaction. However many people are brought up to believe that playing games is being intimate. This need for intimacy is also why people engage in 'games' – they become a substitute for genuine contact.
What is a Game?
In Chapter 5 Eric Berne defines a game as ‘an ongoing series of complementary ulterior transactions progressing to a well-defined, predictable outcome’. Games have two characteristics ie their ulterior quality and the payoff. Berne states that every game is dishonest and has a dramatic outcome. Berne goes on to say that a game is a simple transaction or set of transactions that have been undertaken for a specific purpose. He shows how the ultimate goal being the payoff can be seen in various games for example the insurance game the agent is looking to ‘make a killing’ and states the same goes for the real estate game and other occupations. Thus, he says that a salesman’s participation conceals the maneuvers aimed to elicit information that he is interested in.
The first game that Berne introduces is ‘If it weren’t for you’. He states that this is a game many couples play and thus is categorized under marital games. Wherein one person is restricting another person from doing something they want to do. However the individuals may not consciously be an active participant in this game. The game would come to an abrupt end if the restricting party changes the game and says ‘go ahead’ then the payoff for the restricted party would be taken away. The restricted party would no longer be able to say ‘if it weren’t for you’ and would have to go out and confront their fears. The undercutting of the game leads the other person into a state of despair and contains elements of frustration and bewilderment. Berne also states that people unconsciously choose partners who would place limits on them. He also points out that what we usually blame our partners for is actually an issue with ourselves and that by blaming the other person with ‘if it weren’t for you’ we divert our concentration from our fears. Other marital games spoken about later in the book are ‘Corner’, ‘Courtroom’, ‘Frigid Woman/Man’, ‘Look How Hard I’ve Tried’
The next game that Berne introduces is ‘Why Don’t You - Yes But’. This game is most commonly played at social gatherings, committee meetings and psychotherapy groups and can be thus categorized under party games .This was the first game to be studied outside the social context in which it was being used. In this game the individual presents a problem and others offer solutions which begin with ‘Why don’t you’ to which the complaining individual responds with ‘Yes but’ and can use this continuously until the others get tired of offering solutions. The purpose here of the complaining individual is to gain sympathy and continue to complain about the issue while the other individual who offers advice enjoys the role of Parent and gets to provide wisdom. As Berne states, the purpose is not to get suggestions but to reject them. Berne states that individuals who participate in this game face a conflict with surrendering. Throughout the game their objective stance is to show that no one can give them an acceptable suggestion. Other party games given in this book are 'Ain’t it Awful’ wherein a person seems to be distressed but is secretly satisfied from all he can benefit from the misfortune he faces , ‘Blemish’ in this game an individual who is insecure about his shortcomings would play this game to find another individuals blemish ie their shortcoming, this leads to prying transactions and ‘Schlemiel’ in this game an individual creates destruction in his quest for absolution.
Berne also discusses sexual games. Chapter 9 states that ‘games played to exploit or fight off sexual impulses’ during which satisfaction is displaced from the sexual act to the transaction of the game. These games are usually played in privacy and therefore information about these games are collected secondhand and may contain bias. The games that Berne covers are ‘Let’s You and Him Fight’, ‘Perversion’ ‘Rapo’ ‘Stocking Game’ and ‘Uproar’. These games are participated by individuals who are both married or unmarried.
-Let’s You and Him Fight : When done as a maneuvre, the woman challenges two men into fighting and promises herself to the winner. When done as a ritual, two men fight over the woman even if she hasn’t asked for it or has already made her choice. Her choice may not win and she must chose the man who does. When done as a game, the woman arranges this fight and then runs off with a third party.
-Perversion: According to Berne, individuals in heterosexual relationships who participate in fetishism, sadism, masochism and other such perversions point to a confused Child state. In the transactional aspect there is social control. When the couple settles for more conventional forms of sex it becomes clear that the act itself is not what brings a pervert pleasure but the real satisfaction comes from the humiliation aspect of the foreplay. This might not be something the person admits to themselves.
-Rapo: This game is also mildly referred to as ‘Kiss Off’ or ‘Indignation’ and has various levels of Intensity. In this game, an individual incites the sexual act only to later use it against their partner by referring to it as violence.
1. First Degree Rapo refers to mild flirtation that is usually seen at social gatherings. This Rapo is over once the pursuit is over and the commitment is made. The woman being pursued can make this game last for a while by moving around a social gathering which causes the man to subtly chase her.
2.Second Degree Rapo this refers to the satisfaction one individual receives from rejecting the advances of another.
3.Third Degree Rapo refers to a game wherein one individual leads another into dangerous physical transaction and turns around to claim that the transaction was assault. This confrontation, according to Berne may be immediate in the cry of rape or delayed after a prolonged affair in the form of suicide or homicide. The presence of outsiders might prove precarious as they themselves might be playing ‘Lets You and Him Fight’ if so they may force the game on an unwilling participant which might put her in the position where in order to save herself she may cry rape. An example in the book talks about girls under the legal age of consent who although willingly participating in the relationship, may, when found out turn it into Third Degree Rapo.Berne also states that Third Degree Rapo occurs amongst homosexual strangers.
This game carries a heavy criminal violation
-Stocking Game
This game is one with an exhibitionist nature. It involves a woman joining a group of strangers and then exposing her leg and remarking on her torn stocking. This is done to anger the other women and to sexually arouse the men. Another version of the game according to Berne, for women with deeper pathology, consists of a woman sitting with her hands behind her head enabling her to thrust her chest forward and draw attention to her breasts by either remarking about them. The aim of the game is to imply the availability of the woman.
-Uproar
This game can be played by any two people who are trying to avoid sexual intimacy. According to Berne this game is played by domineering fathers and teenage daughters and a sexually inhibited mother. In this game the father finds fault with the daughter who then responds in a disrespectful manner, or the daughter may initiate it by being disrespectful to which the father finds fault. This game has 3 possibilities, these are, 1. Father goes to his room and slams the door 2. The daughter goes to her room and slams the door. 3 both go to their own rooms and slam their own doors. Berne states that this game provides a solution for the sexual issues between fathers and teen daughters and that is shown through anger. The slamming of the door signifying their own seperate bedrooms. In a degenerative household, according to Berne, this game is played by the father waiting uo for his daughter to return from a date so he can inspect her clothing to determine whether she had intercourse. This game may subside if the father finds an outside sexual interest.
Berne also gives a detailed description of various other kinds of games, such as Life Games which are those games that influence ones destiny and provide opportunities and consequences, some of these are Alcoholic wherein the social transactions with enablers, rescuers, agitators, supplier (connexion) etc Kick Me wherein the individual has a self pitying attitude with the outlook of ‘Why does this always happen to me’ according to Berne this individual is trying to state superiority in his misfortune. See What You Made Me Do this marital game is used to deflect ownership of mistakes onto the interruption or decision made by another. Usually someone following this game marries a person who is playing ‘I’m Only Trying To Help’. In this game the person allows the spouse to make a decision and if it turns out well he reaps the benefits and if not, he can blame the spouse. Thus any mistake made by them can be used against the spouse by placing the blame on them.
Underworld Games these sort of games are played both in and out of prison and include ‘Cops and Robbers’, ‘ How Do You Get Out of Here’ for example prisoners will think of good behavior that can reduce their sentence, and ‘Let’s Pull a Fast One on Joey’.
Consulting Room Games are played in therapeutic situations such as ‘I’m Only Trying To Help You’ ‘Psychiatry’ ‘Greenhouse’ ‘Peasant’ ‘Wooden Leg’.
Good Games according to Berne is ‘a game whose social contribution outweighs the complexity of its motivations especially if the player has come to terms with the motivations without cynicism. It contributes to the wellbeing of the players. Some of these games are Cavalier which is played by men who do not face any sexual pressure such as young men in satisfactory relationships or older celibacy following men, in this game the man must produce an effective compliment to the attractive woman without aiming to seduce her. Happy to Help in this an individual is consistently helpful to others but he presents an ulterior motive such as seeking prestige.
Why are Games important?
Games have a historical significance as stated by Berne, as they are passed down from generation to generation. They have a cultural significance as they vary amongst cultures. They have a social significance as they provide a safe method of interesting social transaction without being too candid, without getting repetitive or too intimate. They have a personal significance as they help people choose their friends and social circles based on who plays the same kind of games to complement each other.
Games People Play as a book was an interesting book from the start, it was a fun thought provoking subject and I found myself hooked to the ideas and the ease with which they were explained. However the book does have a negative outlook on human behavior all boiling down to interacting for a purpose. A lot of the underlining ideas seemed to echo Freudian beliefs such as those of the sexual tension between father and daughter as well as the basis of unconscious thought fueling our gaming purpose. It is with the help of understanding the fact that people are always playing psychological games with each other and being able to notice when we partake in this act as well as noticing our Ego States, this is when we can work on being better and having healthier transactions.
Some of the games resonated and had me realizing I had either played it or been a part of someone elses game.
A downside of the book was the gendered terminology used in his book. Some of the descriptions of the games were based on stereotypical behaviors that have been attributed to a specific gender. When infact the terminology could have substituted he/she for a they. Another aspect I found bothersome was the game : Third Degree Rapo which suggests that a game played by some women with the intent to seduce men only to falsely claim to have been raped. Even though this book is from another time the disbelief is still prevalent in society. This sort of ideology takes away from the already struggling belief system needed when a victim speaks out.
References
Berne, E. Games People Play : The Psychology of Human Relationships [Ebook] (p. 81). Retrieved 5 March 2020, from http://rrt2.neostrada.pl/mioduszewska/course_2643_reading_3.pdf.
Calcaterra, N. Description of Transactional Analysis and Games. Eric Berne. Retrieved 7 March 2020, from http://www.ericberne.com/transactional-analysis/.
Calcaterra, N. Games People Play. Eric Berne. Retrieved 10 March 2020, from http://www.ericberne.com/games-people-play/.
Cramer, D. (1988). Games People Play The Psychology of Human Relationships : Eric Berne. British Journal Of Psychiatry, 152, 440-442. https://doi.org/10.1192/S0007125000219247
